Understanding War and Peace

Brief Explanation of War

Source: "War: Pang. Googleo Images. wwww.students.unit.no

What is war?

I define war as a conflict carried on by force of arms. The hostility may be between nations or groups. Both sides use weapons and battles take place on land, sea or in the air. Violence, injury, and killing are used to settle the dispute.

What are the characteristics of war?

This list explains the important characteristics of war. First, war involves struggle and conflict between nations, organizations, or large groups of people.. Second, the combatants use physical and violent force . Third, the big issue of war is governance in a territory that determines "who gets power, who gets wealth and resources, whose ideals prevail, who is a member or not, (and) which laws get made" ("War"). Fourth, the antagonists of the war perceive each other as an enemy. The actors are hostile and show hatred toward the other. Each side has an opposing military force that seeks to harm, injure, and even kill the enemy.

Nicholos Timasheff, a sociologist, explained the three essential conditions needed for war. First is "a cultural tradition of war" that believes war is useful for resolving conflicts. Second is "an antagonist situation" in which the states have incompatible goals. Third is "fuel that ignites the timber" that encourages the nation to engage in war. He found seven fuels that explode in war:" (1) Get revenge (to settle'old scores' from previous conflicts), (2) Dictate one's will to a weaker nation, (3) Power to enhance prestige (to save another nation's 'honor,' (4) Unite rival groups within one's country, (5) Protect or exalt the nation's leader, (6) Satisfy the national aspirations of ethnic groups(to bring 'our people who are living in another country into our borders), (7) Convert others to religious and ideological beliefs" (Henslin 511).

What are the two types of war?

The two types of war are hot war and cold war.

Hot war is a condition of mutual hostility, active engagement of militaries, and the use of weapons such as missiles, bombs, and soldiers in combat. The goals may be either destruction or surrender of the enemy. Nationalism predominates . the purpose is to produce a winner and a loser.

Cold War takes place in an environment of mutual hostility. There is very little actual engagement. The prevailing conditions include propaganda, arms races, and military preparation for war. Ideology and nationalism predominate. The aim is stalemate, where neither side initiates aggression and war. Both sides fear an overwhelming retaliatory total destructive response (Sandy and Perkins).

Works Cited

Henslin, James. Social Problems. Upper Sattle Rivers: Prentice Halls. 2003. Sixth Edition.

Sandy, Leo and Perkins, Ray. "The Nature Of Peace And Its Implications For Peace Education".oz..lymouth.edu. 10 Apr 2006. http://oz.plymouth,edu/~lsandy/peacedef.html

"War." Stanford Encyclopedia Dictionary. 2May 2006. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/war/

Ethical Issue of War

War can be perceived as a worthy good and a benefit for mankind. The student of peace presents the arguments why war may be perceived as good and beneficial. The sage teacher of peace explains why these arguments are defective and in actuality promote harm and bad outcomes.

Student of Peace: War brings out the finest virtues in warriors. These excellences include honor, nobility, courage, and self-sacriface. These virtues allow the warrior to show his moral strength and apply these excellences to culture, society, politics, and family. An article called "Arguments Defending War" states, "An honorable warrior is expected to also be honorable in dealing with people, a noble warrior is also noble in society and politics, and a warrior who sacrifices for his comrades will also sacrifice for the benefit of society" ("Arguments Defending Society"). Benito Mussolini, The Fascist Dictator of Italy during World War Two stated, "War alone brings up to their highest all human energies and imposes the stamp of nobility upon the peoples who have the courage to make it" ( Musssolini).

Sage Teacher of Peace: The path of the warrior is indeed a noble path. Bo! Bo! Bo!

Student: War promotes patriotism that involves loyalty to the nation, the regime in power, and its war policies. Patriotism also means love of the nation and a willingness to sacrifice including one's life. In the President Bush America patriotism means loyalty to the Administration and its Iraqi War. It also means support for soldiers who fight this war ("How To Win A Pro War Argument").

Student: Military security makes a nation feel safe and protected from an outside attack or subversion within. President Bush claims his war on terrorism prevents secret attacks from Al Qaeda within the United and subversion by radical Islam (Henslin 516).

A successful war establishes the credibility of a nation. It shows a nation purses worthy values, inspires trust and confidence in other nations, and has effective military strength to achieve the ends of its policies. President Bush purpose ifor the Iraqi War is to prove that America has the credibility to promote democracy and freedom in the Middle East (Henslin 516).

A strong military prevents dangers from an attack and beleif the nation is safe from its enemies.

Student: Some political leaders believe that in fighting a particular war that they fulfill the will of God.

Tony Blair, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, believes that he is doing God's will in the Iraqi War. Mr. Blair on an interview show hosted by Michael Parkinson and broadcasted throughout the United Kingdom explained his decision for entering the Iraqi War.
He said: "The decision has to taken and has to be lived with, and in the end there is a judgment that - well, I think if you have faith about these things then you realize that judgment is made by other people. If you believe in God, it's made by God as well.".
Blair believes that he is on mission of God, and his decision will ultimately be judged by God.

They believe a faculty of the mind allows the policy maker to communicate with God and know the will of God.

Student: War is the will of Divinity and Universal spirit, unfolds purpose of God in history, and is the basis for evolution of humanity ("Arguments Defending War"). William Burroughs, an American writer, states, "This is a war universe. War all the time. There may be other universes based on other principles, but ours seems to be based on war and games (Burroughs).

Student: A holy war is fought in the name of a religion. It has these characteristics: (1) to defend or extend one's religion, (2) a moral and holy purpose, (3) a spiritual reward for participants, and (4) soldiers fight in battles because they believe God is on their side ("Holy Wars").

Some American leaders perceive the War on Terror as a Holy War. President Bush has described this war as a crusade against evil doers that include terrorist organization of Al Qaeda, and Islam nations of Saddam's Iraq, Iran, and Syria. He believes America is a Christian nation with a sacred mission to defend Israel and Judaic - Christian civilization. General William Boykin, a general of the Bush Administration, who views America in a holy war against radical Islam. He believes: The United States is a Judiac - Christian nation. Radical Islam is under the direction of the spiritual enemy of mankind, Satan. President Bush is appointed by God to be the leader and President of the United States. President Bush promoted Boykin to Deputy Under - Secretary of Defense for Intelligence ("Is Bush War on Evildoers a Holy Crusade?").

President Bush has turned to the crusading, bible belt Christians, as a major faction of the Republican Party. They believe the Bush Administration should be guided by the Christian biblical worldview. They support the United States military policy for the Middle East (Phillips).

Radical Islam is fighting its own Jihad. Osama bi Laden is the leader of the international terrorist network called al-Qaeda. This group is accused by the United States Government for the attacks of September 11, 2001. Bin Laden and radical Islam leaders hate America for these reasons as presented in the 1998 manifesto: (1) American troops in the Holy nation of Saudi Arabia, (2) United States is an the main supporter of Zionist Israel, (3) United States military presence in the Persian Gulf region, and (4) He regards many western institutions as depraved such as pornography and erotica sex, coed schools, and democracy. He presents this duty to all followers of Islam … "to kill Americans and its allies, both civil and military, is an individual duty to every Moslem who is able in any country, until their armies, shattered and broken - winged, depart from lands of Islam" ("Osama bin Laden"). This jahid is also presented as the defense of Islam, protecting the faith of Islam, and overthrowing the oppression of American Imperialism ("Islam: Holy War").

Student: These are economic benefits of war. It promotes prosperity, employment, and healthy, strong economy. Technology and industry flourish during wars. Without government military contracts the results would be serious unemployment and the closing of many businesses. The preparation for war and the fighting of wars brings substantial profits to corporations engaged in producing military goods ("Economic Benefits of War"). War is useful to end recessions, because it enhances employment and economic growth, and people make more purchases in the private economy (Moffat).

Student: War stimulates scientific research and technological development. In war nations are desperate for scientific development and new innovations. These inventions come from war: nuclear power that provides electricity, rockets that are used to travel in outer space, and smaller and faster boats that in the civilian economy are used for exploration and commerce ("Arguments Defending War").

Student: War brings about these utilitarian results: First, It is a driving force for cultural development Second, wars of conquest produce empires that help the economy and expand the territory of a nation. Third , the military is an institution to rid the nation of "social misfits ("Arguments of War'). Fourth, wars bring about social integration. Nations are in danger fom inner conflicts and civil wars. War with enemies outside the nation gives the nation a common enemy that promotes cooperation and closes the ranks of feuding groups (Henslin 515).

Student: Just war is fought for morally right principles. Most scholars agree a just war needs to meet these four conditions: (1) The governing authority declares the war, (2) The war requires a just cause such as fighting an unprovoked attack , (3) The nation has right intentions such as fighting for justice, and (4) War is a last resort, because all peaceful options are exhausted ("War"). Harry Browne, the Libertarian candidate for President, claims most Americans consider World War II, this nation's one just war. Some of the reasons: The Japanese performed sneak and unprovoked attack on Pearl Harbor. Britain appeased a ruthless dictator at Munich. Hitler sought to conquer Britain and all of Europe. If Germany and Japan had been victorious, Americans would be speaking German or Japanese, today. Americans were fighting for democracy and freedom. (Browne).

Student: The United States fulfills the worthy mission of Pax Americana.The United States the dominant superpower of our planet, crusades for freedom, democracy, and free enterprise. It fights for free speech, free elections of governmental officials, and owning one's own property. The United States fights oppression and tyranny in many nations. The United States is perceived as the new model for the Second Roman Empire. The advocates of Pax America believe that only America with great military strength and overwhelming economic and political influence, can promote free and open societies, global security, and planetary prosperity. The United States performs the role of world policeman. American War in Iraq is a fulfilling its global responsibility and proving to the world that the United States is the superpower of our world with the finest of ideals (Bookman)

"Arguments Defending War." Agnoticism/Atheism. 24 Feb. 2006.http://atheism.about.com/library/FAQs/phil/blphil_eth_wardef.htm
"Backgroung Q&A: Osama bin Laden." Feb 2006. Council On Foreign Relations

Bookman, Jay. "The President 's Real Goal In Iraq." 29 Sept 2002. Information Clearing House. 24 Apr. 2006. < www.information clearing house.inf/article2319.htm>

Browne, Harry. "What Can We Learn From World War II." 14 Nov, 2002. World Daily News. 20 Apr. 2006. http://www.worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?Article_ID=29660.

Burroughs,William. ("Quotations"). 1996. The Columbia World of Quotations. 30 March 2006. http://bartley.com/66/64/9364.html.

"Economic Benefits of War." Agnoticism/Atheism. 24 Apr 2006. http://atheism.about.com/library/FAQs/phil/blphil_et_wardef_soc.htm

Henslin, James. Social Problems. Upper Sattle River: Prentice Hall. 2003. Sixth Edition

"Holy Wars." BBC: Religion snd Ethics. 6 Apr 2006. http://www.bbc.co.uk//religion/ethics/war/holywar.shtml

"How To Win A Pro-War Argument." Irregulartimes. 20 Apr 2006. <www.irregulartimes.com/howtowin.html>

"Is Bush's War On Evildoers A Holy Crusade?" Irregular Times. 27 Apr. 2006. <irregularities.com/holywariorbush.com.>

Moffat, Michael. "Are Wars Good For The Economy?" About Economics. 24 Apr 2006. http://economics.about.com/cs/macroeconomis/aa032003a.htm

Mussolini, Mussolini. "Quotations." 1996. The Columbia World of Quotations. 30 March 2006. http://www.bartley.com/66/3/41003.html.

Phillips. Kevin. "How the GOP Became God's Own Party." 2 Apr. 2006, washingtonpost.com 6 Apr. 2006. http://washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006./04/01/AR2006040100004_pf.html.

"War." Stanford Encylopedia of Philosophy. 26 Apr. 2006. <http:plato.stanford.edu/entries/war/>

These arguments explain why war is bad and horrible. The student of peace presents the arguments and the sage teacher of peace amplifies with insight and wise comments. These arguments offer a unique perspective on the horror and pointlessness of human warfare.

Source: "Is Wal-Mart Evil? The War Against" Google Images. www.nationalsurvey.com

Student of Peace: War is evil because it produces sorrow, distress, calamity, destruction, injury, and death. Franklin Delano Roosevelt, President of the United States during World War Two, exclaimed, "I have seen war. I have seen war on land and sea. I have seen blood in the mud. I have seen cities destroyed. I have seen children starving. I have seen the agony of mothers and wives. I hate war" ("Wikiquote"). Freud, the Austrian psychiatrist and founder of psychotherapy, viewed war as evil for these reasons. War is ferocity, cruelty, and blind fury. It brings about horrible consequences. War wastes large amounts of money on terrible weapons. During the war people lose their sense of good will. An outcome is bitterness for combatants, civilians, and vanquished ("War and Peace" 1012).
Sage Teacher of Peace: Please comment.

Student: A vice is a flaw and a serious defect in character or behavior that produces harmful and destructive results. War exhibits these moral vices: (1) Hatred and bigotry are shown toward the enemy. The foes may be hated because they have a different skin color, speak a different language, or worship another God. (2) Greed is a reprehensible acquisitiveness to obtain the wealth and property of the enemy which escalates into violence and war. (3) Revenge is vengeance toward a group or nation for a past injury or offense. The aggressor seeks to punish and harm the enemy ("War Is Evil").
Dehumanization is another vice. These characteristics are realities of dehumanization of modern warfare: (1) The enemy is deprived of human qualities and one sees the enemy as the embodiment of evil and oneself as the highest good. (Hanslin 523) In the current Iraqi War, President Bush pictures America as the highest good that is fighting for democracy and freedom, while radical Islam is a terrible evil that seeks to bring its form to the whole world and totalitarianism (2) The mass media presents the enemy as barbaric, a threat to one's nation, and as inferior ; (3) The aggressor sees itself as the victim, as the one oppressed, fighting the demonic enemy and uses scapegoats ("Dehumanization"); (4) Both sides murder and torture without heart. They also lose a sense of humanized morality and compassion for the enemy (Hanslin 523).
Sage Teacher: Yes, war is a vice, but whose vice is it? If we first point the finger at "them" (the warmongers), aren't we also at war? Concern over dehumanization is a highly conscious point of view. The big question is "How does war make for this type of consciousness?" Please add more to the comment.

Source: "Nuclear War" Google Images" www.eurekacouncil.com

Student: The world is in grave danger because of nuclear weapons. A nuclear weapons accident could injure and kill many people. A limited nuclear war could harm soldiers and civilians of a nation. A World War Three nuclear war may kill most of the human race and devastate our planet (Henslin 517). Physicans Against Nuclear Weapons state, "Nuclear weapons are not like any other weapons - there is no other weapon that can kill hundreds of millions and possibly bring the end of human civilization" . The nuclear arms race reached its peak in 1986. The United States and Soviet Union, the two super powers of the Cold War, possessed 68,000 nuclear weapons that could extinguish the population of 25 Earths ("Learn About Nuclear Weapons"with nuclear warheads proliferated to eight.

Nation Estimated Nuclear Warheads
United States 7000
Russia 6000
France 464
China 400
United Kingdom 186
Israel 200 to 400
India 75-150
Pakistan 15-25
(Moore)

Sage Teacher: The world is, indeed, in great danger, because of nuclear weapons - and viruses, pollution, over-population, and resource depletion. Please add more to the comment.

Student: Stephen and Bartholomew Klick in the article, "The Evils of War," argue war is evil from the Buddhist viewpoint. These four reasons are presented. The first reason is war is the opposite of religions that teach compassion, love, and non-violence. The Buddhists believe war brings about negative karma and suffering and misery for many people. The second is every cause produces a complimentary effect. Violence of war, in turn, produces aggression, hostility, ferocity, and brutality in society. The third is war and violence may destroy one's civilization. The fourth reason is war and violence degrade its practioners to vicious animals and is dangerous to human survival and well-being.
Sage Teacher: Buddhist Philosophy has always seen clearly. It demonstrates compassion, thus, takes responsibility for the problem. Please add more to the comment.

The first danger is the struggle over resources. Human groups contend over scarce resources and seek to expand their power. They engage with each other and sometimes employ war.

The second danger is the called the "conflicting interests of the bourgeoisie" Henslin explains these conflicts:

In each society some group takes control. This group, which they call the bourgeoisie, uses the resources of society to keep itself in power and to exploit the powerless. As the bourgeoisie expand their power beyond their country, they come into conflict with one another. As a result they decide to go to war. The bourgeoisie don't fight, of course. They hold the power, so they send the exploited (the poor, the workers, the proletariat) to battle for them. The German term for the young men of the poor who died in such outrageous numbers in their wars is "cannon fodder."

The third danger is imperialism. Capitalist nations seek to expand their markets and invest their surplus capital. John Flynn, a writer of the liberal journal, explains, "Imperialism is an institution under which one nation asserts the right to seize the land or at least to control the government or resources of another people" ("Quotes On War").
Carol Moore, a writer and peace activist, views the Bush Administration as the "triumph of Neoconservative imperialists." These are the reasons; First, the Bush Administration will use all means to keep the United States the dominant superpower and use preemptive war and even nuclear weapons, and seeks to promote its military superiority. Second, the United States represents Israeli interests in the Middle East. It seeks to defeat nations of the Middle East that challenge United States and Israel dominance. These nations include Saddam Hussein's Iraq, Iran, and Syria. Third, the Bush Administration seeks to prevent China from becoming the prominent power in the Asia-Pacific Region. Fourth, the United States leads the war against terrorism and al Qaeda. Fifth, the United States seeks to promote its values of democracy, freedom, and free trade. It seeks regime change for nations that do not accept these values. Sixth, the United States has fought two war, Afghanistan and Iraq, to show the world it means to be the dominant world power. Seventh, the Bush Adminstration builds a large military force and machine to maintain its politicial, military, and economic dominance and superiority to any challenger.

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The fourth danger is the war machine that is composed of a large armed forces, the elite of the military, political leaders, and upper level business executuves, and large expenditures for the military and wars. In the United States the war machine is called Military-Industrial Complex. It is composed of an elite with merged interests. Military elite want a big military because it enhances the power and prestige of the military. It needs enemies to justify the existence of the military. The business elite persuade the politicians to go to war and conquer other countries. The business elite seek to promote and protect its own interests and investments around the world and at home. The political leaders need corporate funding to win elections. They use national security as a justification for a large American war machine. The military-industrial complex is a powerful interest group that seeks to produce armaments, promotes arm races, desires large profits, and needs hostile enemies. The arms industries specialize in armaments such as missles, tanks, and airplanes. According to conflict theory the purpose of this complex is to protect and expand free enterprise abroad and at home.(Hanslin 517)

Source: "military-industrial complex $15.000" Google Image. www.wilpf.org
Sage Teacher: Please recomment

Student: The basic belief that war is ingrained in human nature, is held by pessimistic intellectuals. Thomas Hobbes, British philosopher, argued that the state of man's nature is war, and every man is at war with other men. Plato, the ancient Greek philosopher, claimed that war is the result of man's appetites and impulses. This impulse overwhelms reason. Freud, the Austrian psychiatrist, believed that war was caused by the thanatos - the aggressive, destructive, and death instinct of humans. Dostoyevsky, the Russian writer, believed man's nature is barbaric. He/she is a beast of rage, vice, aggression, and mental diseases ("Philosophy of War").
Sage Teacher: Pessimistic as it might sound doesn't history bear this out, but the idea that war is ingrained in human nature? Please recomment.

First is post dramatic stress disorder that applies to veterans and civilians. Some events that cause this effect are witnessing killing in combat and captivity in concentration camps and prisoner of war camps. Some experiences include trauma in dreams, recurring images of the events, and the loss of desire to participate in daily activities. One is filled with negative emotions such as guilt, depression, and fear (Lauer 533).

Fourth is committing violent acts in civilian life.

According to the sage teacher, these symptoms are indicative of the battered child syndrome.
Sage Teacher: Please recomment.

War of 1812 $615 million
Mexican War $ 1.1 billion
American Revolution $ 1.9 billion
Spanish-American War $ 6 billion
Civil War $ 46 billion
Korean War $ 262 billion
World War One $ 370 billion
Vietnam War $ 553 billion
World War Two $ 3 trillion

According to the National Priority Project the cost of the current Iraqi War based on Congressional appropriations is about $271 billion ("Wow!" - a comment of the sage teacher) as of April 3, 2006. These expenditures include military operations, reconstruction, and other expenditures for the invasion and occupation of Iraq.
Sage Teacher: Astonishing numbers. It is interesting that the Civil War and World War Two show some parallels in numbers? What do you make of it? (Please add more).
"Human Death and Injury" Argument

Student: War brings about great human destruction. Since the end of World War Two and 1997, 135 wars on earth killed more than 22 million people. This table shows the enormous deaths and wounded in five American wars

World War Two 292,000 115,000 671,000
Korea 34,000 21,000 103,000
Vietnam 47,000 10,000 304,000
(Lauer 510)

These attitudes occur on the both sides of the war and encouraged by all leaders. The concept is called international misperception in which these attitudes justify both war and militarism. R.P. Whites identifies six misperceptions in wars: (Direct Quote)
1. The diabolical-enemy image imputes flagrant evil to the enemy who is conceived to be thoroughly criminal in be thoroughly criminal in behavior. Prior to the war against Iraq, our political leaders "indulged in personal name calling, false analogies, to past wars and demonic leaders of earlier times (Mark and Rubin 1991). When the enemy is portrayed in such diabolic terms, virtually any kind of offensive action - even genocide - may be considered legitimate (Gamson 1995).
2. The virile self-image implies preoccupation with one's strength and courage and the need to avoid humiliation by determined fighting.
3. The moral self-image affirms goodness; we are the people of God and the enemy is the devil.
4. Selective inattention means that only the worst aspects of the enemy are noticed, at the same time we attend to the best aspect of ourselves, reinforcing the idea the idea of the war, as a conflict conflict between black and white, good and bad.
5. Absence of empathy means the inability to understand how the situation looks from the other's viewpoint.
6. Military overconfidence refers to the conviction that our side can win (Lauer 550).

Sage Teacher: All misperceptions is a residue of thought, opinion, and/or emotion being intermingled with the perception. The lense becomes colored by thought and opinion. This is the case at both the individual and collective level.

Student: A preemptive war is justified by an imminent threat of attack. Since the 911 attack on its soil the United States has instituted Homeland Security and the Patriot Act and claims to currently be fighting a preemptive war in Iraq. I have spoken to several people who told me that they fear to express their true views, are cautious on using the American right of free speech, and see the suppression of civil liberties. Freedom is the right to speak and act without fear and external restraint and interference.
J. William Fulbright, United States Chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee and an opponent of the Vietnam War, warned, "A preventive war in defense of freedom would surely destroy freedom, because one cannot engage in barbarous action without becoming a barbarian, because one cannot defend human values by calculated and unprovoked violence without doing moral damage to the values one is trying to defend" (Wikiquote).
Sage Teacher: Please recomment

Student: War crimes are considered crimes against humanity and the gravest offenses against international law. They are so serious that there is no time limit for persecution and punishment by the International Court. If the nation loses the war, people are usually tried for war crimes.
War crimes are of three types: First is crimes against peace such as waging a war of aggression or war in violation of international law. Second is crimes against humanity that include atrocities and offences against civilian populations during war such as murder, extermination, and deportation. Third is violation of laws and customs of war that include ill treatment of prisoners of war, wantron destruction of cities, and torture and biological experiments ("The Ethics of War").
War crimes are taking place in our life time. International Relations Center, a think tank for peace, claims the Bush Administration is committing war crimes in Iraq. They charge that "despite massive cover-ups, the evidence is emerging: the Bush Administration planned an illegal war of aggression against Iraq, conned the American people and their representatives into supporting it, conducted an illegal occupation marked by massive violations of Iraqi human rights, and justified and promoted systematic torture." The Bush Administration also uses threats to employ death squads and nuclear weapons against its enemies. "These acts violate American law, International Law, and the basic values of the American people. They are crimes against peace and crimes against humanity" (Brecher and Smith).
Sage Teacher: Please recomment

No matter who wins the current war, we all lose. These arguments question the rationality and real purposes of war.

Cost of War." National Priority Project. 3 Apr. 2006. <"http://cost of war.com/index.html">

"Dehumanization" Wikipededia. 27 Mar. 2006. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dehumanization

"The Ethics of War." BBC.Co.UK. 4 Apr. 2006. <"http://www.bbcco.uk/religion/ethics/war/warcrimes.shtml">

Flynn, John. "Quotes On War." Mark Velenti's Liberty Page. 24 Apr. 2006 www.angelfire.com/pa/segerman/quote/war.html

Freud, Sigmund. "Why War?" Approaches to Peace: A Reader in Peace Studies. Ed: David Barash. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. 9-13.

Henslin, James. Social Problems. Upper Sattle River: Prentice Hall. 2003. Sixth Edition. p. 612.

Klick, Stephen and Klick, Bartholomew. "The Evils of War." Buddhist Information. 27 Feb. 2006. <http://www.buddhistinformation.com/evils_of _war.htm>

Lauer, Robert. Social Problems And The Quality of Life. Boston: McGraw-Hill. 1998. 697.

"Learn About Nuclear Weapons." Swedish Peace And Arbitration Society. 24 April 2006. <ww.slmk.org/learn>

Moore, Carol. "Is Nuclear War Inevitable?" Carol Moore. Net 26 Apr 2006. www.carolmore.net

"The Philosophy of War." The Internet Philosophy of War. 23 Feb. 2003. http:www.utm.edu./research/iep/w/war.htm

Johan Galtung invented two concepts of peace: negative peace and positive peace. Galtung was born in Oslo, Norway on October 24, 1930. He is a Norwegian professor who is an academic and a pioneer of peace and conflict research. These two concepts are examined in this paper.

Source: "Peace & Justice. October 2001" Yahoo Internet. www.stantousconnection.org.

Negative peace is a state of affairs in the international system where nations and political groups seek to prevent and to limit war and violence. Negative peace seeks to manage violence between individuals, groups, and nations. Its strategy is disassociation that involves separating the parties in conflict, if necessary with force.. It works with a dangerous world of mutual hostility, enemies ,and national antagonism. ("The Nature of Peace and Its Implications for Peace Education"). It addresses these concerns: (1) urgent conditions and violence of war, and (2) the utilization and consequences of force, and weapons ("What Is Peace?"). It seeks to control agitators from creating disturbances and examines ways to suppress existing violent disturbances ("Peace"). The major characteristics of negative peace include absence of violence, pessimistic outlook about human nature and believe aggression and misunderstandings are part of international politics. It also is curative that is the use of remedial treatment to prevent war, and is not always the use of peaceful methods and even includes violence and war (Grewal). It seeks to avoid violence between states and civil wars within nations. In this negative peace era the planet is filled with local conflicts such as Iraq and Afghanistan, and the Palestinian - Israeli conflict. Millions are threatened by war. The nations seek a balance of power in the international field to maintain the status quo and prevent war. The majority of people and politicians believe in non-violent peace. ("PeaceBuilding").

1. Crisis management seeks to stop crisis that threatensa world nuclear war. An example is the Cuba - USA confrontation of 1961 ("What Is Peace?").

3. Peacekeeping is the use of legitimate, international military coalitions with the consent of belligerent parties to implement conflict prevention and assist in humanitarian operations ("Peace Operations").

These consequences flow from negative peace. First, Gordon Bennet, a Christian nonviolent peace activist, explains, "Peace activists [are] often trapped in an endless cycle of reaction and response, trying to stop the war, the new missile, this senseless military expenditure. Often, [they] become exhausted, fighting so many battles on so many fronts, that (they) have little time or energy left to plan or propose long-term peace-building, initiatives." Second, the enemies of peace exist in the negative peace environment and include greed, jealousy, anger, pride, and egotism. Third, the environment is filled with competing ideologies that claim that they are roads to peace, prosperity,happiness, and abudance. These ideologies include totalitarian socialism, radical Islam, and democracy. Despite aggressive bragging and propaganda the world is filled with violent conflict and discord. These "isms" foster more problems and quarrels (Sri Swami Sivananda). Fourth, people minds in negative peace are filled with fear of war, worry and anguish.

.The current world seeks to manage an unstable, negative peace. Can this situation be changed?

Positive peace seeks to eliminate the real causes of war, violence, and injustice and build a world without war and violence. "It is the presence of social justice through equal opportunity, a fair distribution of power and resources, equal protection and impartial enforcement of the law" ("What Is Peace?"). In society its people are mutually supporting each other and achieving their potential. ("History:Peace"). War and violence will be abolished, and the people of earth will love and embrace positive peace.

These characteristics are manifested in a positive peace world: (1) systems are just and democratic; (2) poor nations are given generous aid for development;
(3) basic needs of food, clothing, transportation and housing are available to all people, (4) prosperity and good employment with adequate wages and benefits" (5) substantial progress in health and education (Bennett), (6) unity and diversity and pluralism are honored in the world; (7) all military technology and forces are controlled by the United Nations; (8)concerned people visualize visions of holistic peace paradigms and work to implement them; ((9) People seek to be in harmony and create a wonderful Gaia or earth environment ("PeaceBuilding")

Mental state of peace exist within the mind and the pure heart of most of the people. The public is filled with silence, harmony, calm, and repose and experience happiness, joy, and bliss most of the time. Both war and violence are perceived as a disgrace (Sri Swami Sivanda).

1. Establishing peace through world order by supporting international law, compliance with multilateral treaties, use of international courts, and nonviolent resolution, participation in international organizations, trade, and communication.
2. Establishing social equality and justice, ecological balance, protecting citizens from attack, and meeting human needs.
3. Establishing a civil peace that provides the constitutional and legal means necessary to settle disputes nonviolently.
4. Eliminating indirect violence, that shortens the life span of people, sustains unequal life chances, or reduces the quality of life for any citizen.
5. Practicing conflict resolution as a foundation for building interpersonal and institutional relationships.

My hypothesis is mankind is in transformation from the Mental Rational Era to the Integrative Era. (Kealey. Lecture Notes . 23 Jan. 2006). The mental -rational era lasted from about 500 B.C to the present. Its characteristics were numerous wars and using negative peace to prevent these wars from producing total destructive to the planet. The planet is in now in transformation to the Integral Era. I believe it will be an era of unity and oneness consciousness, positive peace with no wars, and a new golden age. My evidence is twofold. First are channeling from Adama who predicts Mount Shasta will be the first light city on the surface of our planet and that mankind will be living in the fifth dimension of love, wisdom, and compassion. Positive peace will prevail. Many New Agers believe the new millennium will bring forth a new golden age for our planet with outer and inner peace.

The great challenge for advocates of peace is to transform the world from a dangerous negative peace to a flourishing positive peace. The big question is can this situation actually happen and how to bring it into being. What is your vision of positive peace? What role you can play to make positive peace a living reality?

Dorothy Thompson, an American writer, pictures negative peace, "They have not wanted Peace at all: they have wanted to be spared war - as though the absence of war was the same as peace." ("Peace Quotes" ).

Eramus, a philosopher, stated, "The most disadvantaged peace is better than the most just war." ("Quotes for Peace").

Cicero, the Roman philosopher, said, "I prefer the most unfair peace to the most righteous war" ("Quotes For Peace")

Imagine all the people living in peace
You may say I'm a dreamer
but I am not the only one.
I hope someday you'll join us,
and the world will be as one.
("Quotes For Peace")

T. Tostle in his Personal Correspondence, stated, "(Peace) is a state of well-being that is characterized by trust, compassion, and justice. In this state, we can be encouraged to explore as well as celebrate our diversity, and search for the good in each other the concern for personal pain and sacrifice…It provides us a chance to look at ourselves and others as part of the human family, part of one world" (Sandy and Perkins)

Famous quote by the philosopher Baruch Spinoza states, "Peace is not an absence of war, it is a virtue, a state of mind, a disposition for benevolence, confidence, justice" ("History:Peace" )

Bennett, Gordon. "From Negative to Positive Peacemaking." 3 Nov 2003. CommonDreams.org. 1 May 2006. http://www.commondreams.org/scripfiles/views/1103-03.htm.

Grewal, Baljit. "Positive and Negative Peace." Bajit.blogspot.com 10 Apr 2006. http://baljit.blogs.com/2005/08positive-and-negative-peace.html

"History: Peace." Conflictresolver.Net. 10 Apr. 2006. http://www.conflictresolver.net/tiki-pagehistory.php?page+peace&diff2=4&diff_style=sideviews&PHPSEss

Kealey, D. Alexander. "Lecture Notes." College of the Siskiyous. Weed, Ca
23 Jan 2006.

"Peace." Wikipedia. 10 Apr 2006. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?Peace.

"Peace Operations: An Australian Perspective. AUFPHC. 10 Apr 2006. http://www.defence.gov.au/adfwc/peacekeeping/terminology.htm
"Peace Quotes." From Wisdom Quotes 2 May 2006. http://www.wisdomquotes/cat-peace.htm

"Quotes For Peace"15 Nov 2004. Idealist.org. 2 May 2006. http://www.idealist.org

Sandy, Leo and Perkins, Ray. "The Nature of Peace And Its Implications For Peace Education." OZ.Plymouth.edu 10 Apr 2006. http://oz.plymouth.edu/`Isandy/peacedef.html

Sri Swami Sivananda. "Peace." Sivanandalshq.org 12 Apr 2006. http://www.sivanandadshq.org/messages/peace.htm

"What Is Peace?" Esrnational,org. 10 Apr 2006. http://www.estrnational.org/peacewhatis.htm

War	Battle Deaths	Non-battlle Deaths	Wounded
Civil War	215,000	283,000	282,000
Word War One	53,000	63,000	204,000